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Tsar Nicholas II was the last Emperor of Russia, ruling from 1894 until his abdication in 1917. Under his rule, Russia was an autocracy — a vast, backward, and deeply unequal empire that was struggling to modernise. Understanding the nature of Tsarist Russia is essential for the AQA GCSE History specification on Russia, 1894–1945.
When Nicholas II became Tsar in 1894, Russia was the largest country in the world, stretching from Poland in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east.
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Size | Over 8 million square miles — spanning 11 time zones |
| Population | Approximately 125 million (by 1897 census) |
| Ethnic diversity | Over 100 different nationalities and languages; only about 55% of the population was ethnically Russian |
| Religion | The Russian Orthodox Church was dominant; the Tsar was seen as God's representative on Earth |
| Literacy | Only about 20% of the population could read and write |
| Economy | Overwhelmingly agricultural; about 80% of the population were peasants |
Exam Tip: The sheer size and diversity of the Russian Empire made it extremely difficult to govern. This is a key factor in explaining why the Tsarist system eventually collapsed.
Russia was governed as an autocracy — the Tsar had absolute power, and there were no democratic institutions.
| Element | Detail |
|---|---|
| The Tsar | Absolute ruler; all power derived from the Tsar; he could make laws, appoint ministers, and command the army without any checks on his authority |
| The Okhrana | The secret police; spied on political opponents, censored publications, and used agents provocateurs to infiltrate revolutionary groups |
| The Orthodox Church | Supported the Tsar's authority; taught that the Tsar was chosen by God; promoted obedience |
| The nobility | Owned vast estates; dominated the government and the military; had a stake in maintaining the system |
| Censorship | The press was strictly censored; political parties were illegal; trade unions were banned |
| No parliament | Russia had no elected national assembly; the Tsar ruled by decree |
Nicholas II was poorly suited to the role of autocratic ruler.
| Characteristic | Detail |
|---|---|
| Weak and indecisive | Struggled to make firm decisions; often influenced by the last person he spoke to |
| Devoted family man | Loved his wife Alexandra and their five children, but this sometimes distracted him from governing |
| Stubborn | Believed firmly in autocracy as God's will; refused to make meaningful political reforms |
| Out of touch | Had little understanding of the poverty and suffering of ordinary Russians |
| Influenced by Tsarina Alexandra | His German-born wife was deeply unpopular and came under the influence of Rasputin |
Russian society was deeply divided and unequal.
| Group | % of Population | Conditions |
|---|---|---|
| Peasants | ~80% | Desperately poor; lived in small villages; farmed using primitive methods; many were former serfs (serfdom had been abolished only in 1861); land hunger was the biggest problem |
| Industrial workers | ~4% (growing) | Lived in overcrowded, unsanitary factory towns (especially Moscow and St Petersburg); worked 12–16 hours a day; low wages; no trade union rights |
| Middle class | Small | Doctors, lawyers, teachers, merchants; growing but politically frustrated; wanted a constitutional monarchy or democracy |
| Nobility | ~1% | Owned vast estates; dominated government and the military; most supported autocracy |
| Clergy | Small | Orthodox priests; generally conservative; supported the Tsar |
In the 1890s, Finance Minister Sergei Witte launched a programme of rapid industrialisation.
| Policy | Detail |
|---|---|
| Foreign investment | Attracted loans and investment from France, Britain, and Belgium |
| Railways | The Trans-Siberian Railway (begun 1891, completed 1904) connected Moscow to Vladivostok — 5,772 miles |
| Heavy industry | Coal, iron, steel, and oil production increased dramatically |
| Tariffs | High tariffs protected Russian industry from foreign competition |
| Gold standard | Adopted in 1897, stabilising the currency and encouraging foreign investment |
| Achievement | Problem |
|---|---|
| Industrial output grew rapidly; Russia became the world's 4th largest industrial power by 1914 | Industrialisation created a large, discontented urban working class |
| Railways opened up Siberia and connected the empire | Workers lived in terrible conditions; strikes and unrest increased |
| Foreign investment modernised parts of the economy | Agriculture remained backward; peasants did not benefit; Russia was still overwhelmingly rural |
Exam Tip: Witte's industrialisation is a double-edged sword. It modernised Russia but also created the very working class that would eventually support revolution. This is a key argument to make in essay questions about the causes of revolution.
Despite censorship and the Okhrana, opposition to Tsarist rule was growing.
| Group | Founded | Beliefs |
|---|---|---|
| Social Revolutionaries (SRs) | 1901 | Wanted a peasant revolution; supported land redistribution; used terrorism (assassinated government officials) |
| Social Democrats (SDs) | 1898 | Marxists; believed in a workers' revolution. Split in 1903 into Bolsheviks (led by Lenin) and Mensheviks |
| Bolsheviks | 1903 | Led by Vladimir Lenin; wanted a small, disciplined party of professional revolutionaries to lead a workers' revolution |
| Mensheviks | 1903 | Wanted a broad-based workers' party; believed Russia needed to develop capitalism fully before a socialist revolution was possible |
| Liberals (Kadets) | 1905 | Middle-class party; wanted a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament; moderate reformers |
| Octobrists | 1905 | More conservative liberals; accepted the Tsar's October Manifesto (1905) as sufficient reform |
By the early 1900s, Tsarist Russia was a country of enormous contrasts — a vast empire with immense natural resources, but governed by an autocratic system that was increasingly unable to meet the demands of its people. Nicholas II's refusal to modernise the political system, combined with the poverty of the peasants, the exploitation of industrial workers, and the growth of revolutionary movements, created a volatile situation. The 1905 Revolution would be the first major crack in the Tsarist system.