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The story of migration, empires, and the people in Britain begins with the arrival of the Vikings in the late 8th century and the Norman Conquest of 1066. These invasions transformed the political, cultural, and social landscape of the British Isles and established patterns of migration and settlement that would continue for centuries.
The Vikings were seafaring warriors, traders, and settlers from Scandinavia (modern-day Denmark, Norway, and Sweden). They first appeared off the coast of Britain in the late 8th century and would profoundly shape the development of the country.
| Date | Event |
|---|---|
| 793 | Viking raid on the monastery at Lindisfarne (Holy Island, Northumbria) --- the first recorded Viking attack on Britain |
| 865 | The Great Heathen Army arrives; a large Viking force invades and conquers much of eastern and northern England |
| 871 | Alfred the Great becomes King of Wessex; the only English kingdom to resist Viking conquest |
| 878 | Alfred defeats the Vikings at the Battle of Edington; the Treaty of Wedmore establishes the Danelaw (Viking-controlled territory in eastern England) |
| 954 | The last Viking King of York, Eric Bloodaxe, is expelled; England is united under the English Crown |
| 1013 | Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark invades and conquers England |
| 1016--1035 | Cnut (Canute) rules England as part of a Scandinavian empire that includes Denmark and Norway |
Key Term: Danelaw --- the area of eastern and northern England under Viking law and control, established by the Treaty of Wedmore (878). It included major towns such as York, Lincoln, and Nottingham.
| Area | Impact |
|---|---|
| Settlement | Vikings settled permanently in eastern and northern England; many place names ending in -by (Whitby, Derby), -thorpe (Cleethorpes), and -thwaite are of Viking origin |
| Language | Over 1,000 English words have Old Norse origins, including "sky," "egg," "knife," "law," "husband," and "window" |
| Trade | Vikings were skilled traders; York (Jorvik) became one of the largest trading centres in northern Europe |
| Law and government | Viking legal customs influenced English law; the concept of a jury has Scandinavian roots |
| Culture | Norse myths, crafts, and artistic styles blended with Anglo-Saxon culture |
The Norman Conquest was the last successful invasion of England and one of the most transformative events in British history.
When Edward the Confessor died on 5 January 1066 without a clear heir, three men claimed the English throne.
| Claimant | Claim |
|---|---|
| Harold Godwinson | Powerful English earl; chosen by the Witan (council of nobles); Edward allegedly named him as successor on his deathbed |
| Harald Hardrada | King of Norway; claimed the throne based on an agreement between previous Scandinavian and English kings |
| William of Normandy | Duke of Normandy (northern France); claimed Edward had promised him the throne in 1051; also claimed Harold had sworn an oath to support his claim |
| Date | Battle | Detail |
|---|---|---|
| 25 September 1066 | Battle of Stamford Bridge | Harold Godwinson defeats and kills Harald Hardrada in Yorkshire |
| 14 October 1066 | Battle of Hastings | William of Normandy defeats Harold Godwinson (who is killed, traditionally by an arrow to the eye); William marches on London and is crowned King of England on Christmas Day 1066 |
The Norman Conquest brought enormous changes to every aspect of English life.
| Area | Impact |
|---|---|
| Political | The entire English ruling class was replaced by Normans; by 1086, only two of the 190 major landholders in England were English |
| Feudal system | William imposed a strict feudal system: all land belonged to the king and was granted to loyal Norman barons in return for military service |
| Castles | The Normans built hundreds of castles (initially motte-and-bailey, later stone) to control the English population; e.g. the Tower of London |
| The Domesday Book (1086) | A comprehensive survey of all land, livestock, and resources in England; used for taxation and administration |
| Language | Norman French became the language of the court, law, and the aristocracy; English was spoken by the common people. Many modern English legal and political terms derive from French (e.g. "parliament," "justice," "government") |
| The Church | Norman bishops and abbots replaced English ones; grand cathedrals and abbeys were built in the Romanesque style |
| Resistance | English resistance was brutally suppressed; the Harrying of the North (1069--70) devastated Yorkshire and the north |
Exam Tip: The Norman Conquest is a key turning point for migration and its impact on Britain. The new Norman elite completely transformed English politics, language, law, and culture. Be prepared to evaluate both the scale of the change and the elements of continuity (e.g. the English language survived, though enriched by French vocabulary).
| Person | Role |
|---|---|
| Alfred the Great | King of Wessex who resisted the Vikings and established the Danelaw boundary |
| Cnut (Canute) | Danish king who ruled England as part of a Scandinavian empire |
| Edward the Confessor | English king whose death in 1066 triggered the succession crisis |
| Harold Godwinson | Last Anglo-Saxon king; killed at the Battle of Hastings |
| William the Conqueror | Duke of Normandy who conquered England in 1066 |
| Date | Event |
|---|---|
| 793 | Viking raid on Lindisfarne |
| 878 | Treaty of Wedmore establishes the Danelaw |
| 1016 | Cnut becomes King of England |
| 1066 | Battle of Hastings; Norman Conquest |
| 1069--70 | Harrying of the North |
| 1086 | Domesday Book compiled |
The Viking and Norman invasions were the two most significant waves of migration and conquest in early English history. The Vikings settled, traded, and enriched English language and culture. The Normans replaced the entire ruling class, imposed a new feudal system, and transformed English law, language, and architecture. Together, these invasions demonstrate how migration --- whether through conquest or settlement --- has shaped Britain from its earliest recorded history.
Exam Tip: When writing about the Viking and Norman invasions, focus on their long-term impact on English society. The strongest answers will evaluate whether these were primarily destructive or constructive forces, and how they set patterns for later migration and settlement.