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The Gulf War of 1990–1991 was the first major international conflict of the post-Cold War era. Iraq's invasion of Kuwait provoked a massive US-led military response that demonstrated overwhelming Western military power but left many issues unresolved. This lesson examines the causes, events, and immediate consequences of the Gulf War.
Iraq, under the dictatorship of Saddam Hussein, was one of the most powerful countries in the Middle East. Saddam had ruled Iraq since 1979 and maintained power through a combination of military force, secret police, and the suppression of dissent.
| Key Facts about Iraq | Detail |
|---|---|
| Leader | Saddam Hussein (President from 1979) |
| Government | Ba'athist dictatorship; one-party state |
| Military | One of the largest armies in the Middle East (~1 million soldiers) |
| Economy | Heavily dependent on oil exports |
| Iran-Iraq War | Fought a devastating 8-year war with Iran (1980–1988); left Iraq heavily in debt |
| Western relations | The USA and Britain had supported Iraq during the Iran-Iraq War as a counterweight to Iran |
On 2 August 1990, Iraqi forces invaded and occupied Kuwait, a small, oil-rich neighbouring state. Saddam Hussein had several motivations.
| Reason | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Debt | Iraq owed approximately $80 billion after the Iran-Iraq War; much of this was owed to Kuwait and Saudi Arabia |
| Oil prices | Saddam accused Kuwait of overproducing oil, which drove down prices and reduced Iraq's revenue |
| Historical claim | Iraq had long claimed that Kuwait was historically part of Iraqi territory |
| Oil wealth | Kuwait's vast oil reserves would solve Iraq's financial crisis |
| Slant drilling | Iraq accused Kuwait of stealing Iraqi oil by drilling diagonally into the Rumaila oil field on the border |
| Miscalculation | Saddam may have believed the USA would not intervene — US Ambassador April Glaspie had seemed to suggest the USA would not take sides in Arab disputes |
Exam Tip: The role of April Glaspie is a controversial topic. Her meeting with Saddam on 25 July 1990 has been interpreted as giving a "green light" for the invasion, though the US government denied this. Be careful to present this as a factor Saddam may have misinterpreted, rather than as a deliberate US signal.
| Event | Detail |
|---|---|
| Date | 2 August 1990 |
| Iraqi force | ~100,000 troops and 700 tanks |
| Duration | Kuwait was conquered within 12 hours |
| Kuwaiti government | The Emir of Kuwait fled to Saudi Arabia |
| Iraqi annexation | Saddam declared Kuwait Iraq's "19th province" |
| Hostages | Western nationals in Kuwait were taken hostage and used as "human shields" at military sites |
The invasion provoked near-universal condemnation and a swift international response.
| Resolution | Date | Content |
|---|---|---|
| Resolution 660 | 2 August 1990 | Condemned the invasion; demanded immediate Iraqi withdrawal |
| Resolution 661 | 6 August 1990 | Imposed comprehensive economic sanctions on Iraq |
| Resolution 678 | 29 November 1990 | Authorised the use of "all necessary means" to remove Iraq from Kuwait if it did not withdraw by 15 January 1991 |
The USA, under President George H. W. Bush, assembled a coalition of 35 nations to oppose Iraq.
| Key Coalition Members | Contribution |
|---|---|
| United States | ~500,000 troops; overall command |
| United Kingdom | ~45,000 troops |
| Saudi Arabia | ~100,000 troops; provided bases |
| France | ~18,000 troops |
| Egypt | ~35,000 troops |
| Syria | ~20,000 troops |
Key Term: Operation Desert Shield — the build-up of coalition forces in Saudi Arabia from August 1990 to January 1991, designed to deter further Iraqi aggression and prepare for the liberation of Kuwait.
When Iraq failed to withdraw by the 15 January deadline, the coalition launched Operation Desert Storm.
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Duration | 38 days |
| Sorties | Over 100,000 air sorties |
| Targets | Military installations, communications, supply lines, air defences, and infrastructure |
| Precision weapons | Coalition used "smart bombs" and cruise missiles — though most bombs were conventional |
| Iraqi air force | Largely destroyed on the ground or fled to Iran |
| Civilian casualties | Controversial — bombing of the Amiriyah shelter (13 February) killed approximately 400 civilians |
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Duration | 100 hours |
| Strategy | "Left hook" — coalition forces swept around Iraqi positions from the west |
| Iraqi resistance | Collapsed rapidly; mass surrenders |
| Kuwait liberated | Iraqi forces expelled from Kuwait |
| Ceasefire | President Bush declared a ceasefire on 28 February 1991 |
As Iraqi forces retreated from Kuwait along Highway 80, they were attacked by coalition aircraft. The resulting destruction — miles of burned vehicles and bodies — became known as the "Highway of Death." Images of the carnage influenced Bush's decision to declare a ceasefire.
| Side | Killed | Wounded |
|---|---|---|
| Coalition | ~292 (147 US) | ~776 |
| Iraq | Estimated 20,000–35,000 military | Unknown |
| Iraqi civilians | Estimated 2,000–3,000 | Unknown |
| Kuwaiti civilians | ~1,000 killed during occupation | Unknown |
| Key Event | Date | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Iraq invades Kuwait | 2 August 1990 | Triggers international crisis |
| UN Resolution 678 | 29 November 1990 | Authorises force if Iraq does not withdraw |
| Operation Desert Storm begins | 17 January 1991 | Coalition air campaign begins |
| Ground campaign | 24–28 February 1991 | Kuwait liberated in 100 hours |
| Ceasefire | 28 February 1991 | War ends but Saddam remains in power |
Exam Tip: The Gulf War demonstrates key themes: the role of oil in international relations, the importance of UN resolutions in legitimising military action, and the limitations of military victory (Saddam remained in power). These themes recur throughout the course.