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The outbreak of the First World War in 1914 was the result of long-term tensions that had been building across Europe for decades. This lesson covers the key causes of those tensions, including the alliance system, imperial rivalry, militarism, and nationalism. Understanding these background factors is essential for the AQA GCSE History specification on Conflict and Tension, 1894–1918.
By the early 1900s, Europe was divided into two major alliance blocs. These alliances were originally intended to keep the peace through deterrence — the idea that no country would risk attacking another if it meant facing a powerful alliance. However, the alliances ultimately made war more likely, because a dispute between two countries could drag in all the others.
| Alliance | Members | Formed |
|---|---|---|
| Triple Alliance | Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy | 1882 |
| Triple Entente | France, Russia, Britain | 1907 (building on Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894 and Entente Cordiale of 1904) |
Exam Tip: Be careful with the terminology. An alliance is a formal agreement to support each other in war. An entente is a less formal understanding or agreement. The Triple Entente was not a binding military alliance, but in practice it functioned as one by 1914.
By the late 19th century, the major European powers were competing fiercely for colonies and territories around the world. This imperial rivalry created distrust and antagonism.
| Crisis | Date | Detail |
|---|---|---|
| First Moroccan Crisis | 1905 | Kaiser Wilhelm II visited Tangier and declared support for Moroccan independence, challenging France's influence. An international conference at Algeciras (1906) sided with France, humiliating Germany |
| Bosnian Crisis | 1908 | Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina, angering Serbia and Russia. Russia backed down, but the crisis increased tensions in the Balkans |
| Second Moroccan Crisis (Agadir) | 1911 | Germany sent the gunboat Panther to Agadir in response to French troops entering Morocco. Britain supported France, and Germany was forced to back down again |
The major powers engaged in a massive arms race, building up their military forces in preparation for potential conflict.
| Country | Military Development |
|---|---|
| Germany | Expanded its army to over 2 million men. Launched a massive naval building programme to challenge British naval supremacy |
| Britain | Responded to the German naval threat by building Dreadnought battleships (from 1906). By 1914, Britain had 29 Dreadnoughts to Germany's 17 |
| France | Increased its army through conscription; built fortifications along the German border |
| Russia | Had the largest army in Europe (over 5 million men when fully mobilised), though it was poorly equipped |
The Anglo-German naval race was one of the most significant causes of tension. In 1898, Kaiser Wilhelm II began building a large navy under the Navy Laws, designed to challenge British naval dominance. Britain viewed this as a direct threat.
Exam Tip: The naval race is a key example of how militarism increased tensions. Britain saw its navy as essential for protecting its empire and trade routes, so Germany's naval expansion was seen as an aggressive challenge.
Nationalism — the belief that your nation is superior and should be independent and powerful — was a driving force behind many of the tensions in Europe.
| Region | Nationalist Tension |
|---|---|
| The Balkans | Known as the "powder keg of Europe." Multiple ethnic groups (Serbs, Croats, Bosnians, Bulgarians) sought independence from the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires. Serbia wanted to unite all Slavic peoples in a "Greater Serbia" |
| France | French nationalism was fuelled by the desire to recover Alsace-Lorraine, lost to Germany in the Franco-Prussian War (1871) |
| Germany | Kaiser Wilhelm II pursued Weltpolitik (world policy) — a desire for Germany to have its "place in the sun" as a global power |
| Pan-Slavism | Russia saw itself as the protector of Slavic peoples in the Balkans, bringing it into conflict with Austria-Hungary |
| Figure | Role |
|---|---|
| Kaiser Wilhelm II | Emperor of Germany; pursued aggressive foreign policy (Weltpolitik) and naval expansion |
| Count von Schlieffen | German military chief who devised the Schlieffen Plan |
| Tsar Nicholas II | Emperor of Russia; supported Pan-Slavism and Serbia |
| Archduke Franz Ferdinand | Heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne; his assassination triggered WWI |
| Date | Event |
|---|---|
| 1882 | Triple Alliance formed |
| 1894 | Franco-Russian Alliance |
| 1904 | Entente Cordiale (Britain and France) |
| 1905 | First Moroccan Crisis |
| 1906 | HMS Dreadnought launched, accelerating the naval race |
| 1907 | Triple Entente formed |
| 1908 | Bosnian Crisis |
| 1911 | Second Moroccan Crisis (Agadir) |
By 1914, Europe was a powder keg of competing alliances, imperial rivalries, military build-ups, and nationalist ambitions. The alliance system meant that a local dispute could quickly escalate into a continent-wide war. Imperial rivalry and the naval race had poisoned relations between the great powers, while nationalism — particularly in the Balkans — created flashpoints for conflict. All that was needed was a spark.
Exam Tip: For "Explain" questions on the causes of WWI, use the framework of MAIN — Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, Nationalism. Then add specific examples and link the factors together to show how they interacted.