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Christianity, unlike some religions, does not rely on a single source of authority. Instead, Christians draw on a rich and sometimes contested range of sources to guide belief and practice. Understanding these sources — and the tensions between them — is essential to studying the religion at A-Level. This lesson examines the Bible, Church tradition, reason, conscience, and natural law as sources of wisdom and authority, and considers how different Christian denominations weigh them.
The Bible is the foundational text of Christianity, comprising the Old Testament (shared with Judaism) and the New Testament. However, Christians disagree profoundly about what kind of authority the Bible carries and how it should be read.
Key Definition: Inspiration refers to the belief that the biblical writers were guided by God in some way. The word comes from the Latin inspirare (to breathe into), reflecting the idea in 2 Timothy 3:16 that "all Scripture is God-breathed" (theopneustos).
Key Definition: Revelation is the process by which God makes himself and his will known to human beings. Propositional revelation treats the Bible as containing direct statements of truth from God. Non-propositional revelation holds that God reveals himself through events, experiences, and encounters, which the biblical writers then interpreted.
| Approach | Key Features | Supporters |
|---|---|---|
| Verbal inerrancy | Every word of the Bible is directly dictated by God and is without error in all matters, including science and history | Conservative evangelicals; the Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy (1978) |
| Conservative evangelical | The Bible is inspired and authoritative in matters of faith and conduct, though minor discrepancies in detail are possible | John Stott (1921–2011); Wayne Grudem (b. 1948) |
| Liberal interpretation | The Bible is a human document that contains the Word of God but is not itself identical with it; it must be read in historical and cultural context | Rudolf Bultmann (1884–1976); scholars who advocate "demythologising" |
| Neo-orthodox | The Bible becomes the Word of God when it speaks to the reader through the Holy Spirit; it is a witness to revelation rather than revelation itself | Karl Barth (1886–1968) |
Bultmann argued that the New Testament contains layers of myth — not falsehoods, but culturally conditioned ways of expressing transcendent truths. To access the real message of the text, interpreters must strip away the mythological framework (a process he called demythologisation). Barth, by contrast, rejected the liberal tendency to reduce Scripture to a human product and insisted that the Bible has a unique authority as the witness to Jesus Christ.
For all Christians, the Bible holds a special place, but its authority is understood differently across denominations.
| Denomination | View of Biblical Authority |
|---|---|
| Roman Catholic | The Bible is one of two sources of authority alongside Sacred Tradition; the Magisterium (teaching authority of the Church) has the final say in interpreting Scripture (Dei Verbum, Vatican II, 1965) |
| Protestant (Reformed) | Sola Scriptura — Scripture alone is the supreme authority in matters of faith; tradition and reason are subordinate (Martin Luther, 1483–1546; John Calvin, 1509–1564) |
| Anglican | The "three-legged stool" of Scripture, tradition, and reason (attributed to Richard Hooker, 1554–1600) |
| Orthodox | Scripture and Holy Tradition are inseparable; the Church's liturgical and patristic tradition is essential for correct interpretation |
| Quaker | The "Inner Light" of the Holy Spirit may take priority over the written text |
Exam Tip: Be prepared to compare sola scriptura with the Catholic approach of Scripture-plus-Tradition. Examiners reward candidates who can explain why these differences developed historically (e.g., Luther's rejection of papal authority in the sixteenth century) and what practical consequences they have for ethical debates today.
Tradition (from the Latin tradere, to hand over) refers to the accumulated teachings, practices, and interpretations of the Church across the centuries.
For Roman Catholics, Sacred Tradition is a second, co-equal source of authority alongside Scripture. The Catechism of the Catholic Church (1992) states that "both Scripture and Tradition must be accepted and honoured with equal sentiments of devotion and reverence" (para. 82). This includes the decrees of ecumenical councils, papal encyclicals, and the writings of the Church Fathers.
For Protestants, tradition is valuable but always subject to correction by Scripture. The Reformers argued that the medieval Church had added doctrines (e.g., purgatory, indulgences, the papacy itself) that had no basis in the Bible.
John Henry Newman (1801–1890), in his Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine (1845), argued that doctrine legitimately develops over time under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, just as an acorn grows into an oak tree. This idea was influential in Catholic theology and remains controversial among Protestants.
The role of reason in Christian theology has been debated since the earliest centuries.
Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) argued that faith and reason are complementary, not contradictory. He held that certain truths about God (e.g., God's existence) can be known through reason alone (natural theology), while others (e.g., the Trinity) require revelation. His Summa Theologica is the most systematic attempt to integrate Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology.
The Enlightenment elevated reason to the supreme authority in all matters. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) argued in Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone (1793) that morality is the essence of religion and that doctrines not supportable by reason should be discarded.
Barth strongly opposed natural theology, arguing in his famous dispute with Emil Brunner (1889–1966) that fallen human reason cannot know God without revelation. His reply to Brunner's argument was simply: "Nein!" (1934).
Key Definition: Conscience is the inner sense of moral right and wrong. In Christian theology, it is often understood as the voice of God within the human person, though theologians differ on whether it is an innate faculty, a product of reason, or a divine gift.
Aquinas described conscience as synderesis (the innate orientation towards good) combined with conscientia (the practical application of moral principles to specific situations). Conscience, for Aquinas, can err if based on faulty reasoning, but a person is always obliged to follow their conscience.
Joseph Butler (1692–1752) argued that conscience is the supreme authority within human nature, placed there by God. It has a natural authority over all other human motivations: "Had it strength as it has right, had it power as it has manifest authority, it would absolutely govern the world."
Cardinal John Henry Newman wrote that conscience is "the aboriginal Vicar of Christ" — a direct connection between the individual soul and God. He famously said he would drink "to the Pope, if you please — still, to Conscience first, and to the Pope afterwards."
Key Definition: Natural law is the moral law that can be discovered through reason and is accessible to all people, regardless of religious belief. It is based on the idea that God has implanted a rational moral order in creation.
The natural law tradition in Christianity is principally associated with Aquinas, who drew on Aristotle and the Stoics. Aquinas identified the primary precepts of natural law as: self-preservation, reproduction, education of the young, living in society, and worshipping God. From these, secondary precepts (specific moral rules) can be derived through reason.
Natural law has been central to Roman Catholic moral teaching, providing the basis for the Church's positions on contraception (Humanae Vitae, 1968), abortion, and euthanasia. It has been criticised by Protestant theologians (especially Barth) for suggesting that fallen human reason can access moral truth independently of revelation.
Key Definition: The Magisterium is the teaching authority of the Roman Catholic Church, exercised by the Pope and the bishops in communion with him. It exists in two forms: the ordinary Magisterium (day-to-day teaching) and the extraordinary Magisterium (solemn definitions, including papal infallibility).
The doctrine of papal infallibility was defined at the First Vatican Council (1870). It holds that when the Pope speaks ex cathedra (from the chair of Peter) on matters of faith and morals, he is preserved from error by the Holy Spirit. This power has been formally exercised only twice: the Immaculate Conception (1854) and the Assumption of Mary (1950).
Protestants reject the Magisterium as a source of authority, arguing that it elevates human institution above Scripture. The Orthodox churches accept the authority of ecumenical councils but reject papal supremacy.
| Source of Authority | Catholic Emphasis | Protestant Emphasis | Orthodox Emphasis |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bible | Authoritative, interpreted by Magisterium | Supreme authority (sola scriptura) | Authoritative, interpreted through Tradition |
| Tradition | Co-equal with Scripture | Subordinate to Scripture | Inseparable from Scripture |
| Reason | Valued (Aquinas, natural law) | Generally subordinate to Scripture | Valued within patristic framework |
| Conscience | Must be informed by Church teaching | Individual conscience important (Luther: "Here I stand") | Formed through prayer and liturgy |
| Magisterium | Essential and binding | Rejected | Conciliar authority, not papal |
Strengths of biblical authority:
Limitations of biblical authority:
Strengths of tradition and the Magisterium:
Limitations:
Exam Tip: A top-band answer will not simply list sources of authority but will analyse the relationships between them. For example, how does sola scriptura create different ethical conclusions from the Catholic approach? How does the role of conscience relate to the authority of the Church? Always support your argument with specific scholars and examples.