You are viewing a free preview of this lesson.
Subscribe to unlock all 10 lessons in this course and every other course on LearningBro.
The creation of the German Empire in 1871 was not a natural or inevitable process but rather the result of Prussian military power, Bismarck's diplomatic ruthlessness, and a series of carefully engineered wars. The central question for this period is: how stable was the new Reich, and did Bismarck create a state that could survive without him?
Key Definition: The Kaiserreich (German Empire) was the federal state proclaimed on 18 January 1871 in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles. It united 25 states under Prussian leadership, with the King of Prussia as Kaiser (Emperor).
German unification was achieved through three wars orchestrated by Otto von Bismarck, Minister-President of Prussia from 1862:
| War | Date | Outcome | Significance |
|---|---|---|---|
| Danish War | 1864 | Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark | Gained Schleswig-Holstein; created a future pretext for conflict with Austria |
| Austro-Prussian War | 1866 | Prussian victory at Koniggratz (Sadowa) | Austria excluded from German affairs; North German Confederation formed |
| Franco-Prussian War | 1870–71 | Prussian-led victory; siege of Paris | Southern states joined; Empire proclaimed; France ceded Alsace-Lorraine |
Bismarck exploited the Ems Telegram in July 1870 to provoke France into declaring war, ensuring the southern German states would rally behind Prussia. The Empire was proclaimed on 18 January 1871 in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles — a deliberate humiliation of France that would have lasting consequences.
Exam Tip: When assessing unification, distinguish between 'unification from above' (Bismarck's wars and diplomacy) and 'unification from below' (economic integration through the Zollverein and the nationalist movement). Both were necessary, but Prussian power was decisive.
The constitution reflected Prussian dominance and Bismarck's determination to limit democratic influence while giving the appearance of popular participation:
The constitution was deliberately designed to preserve the power of the Prussian monarchy, the Junker aristocracy, and the military. Hans-Ulrich Wehler argues this created a 'pseudo-constitutional' system — democratic in form but authoritarian in substance.
Bismarck's 'struggle for civilisation' targeted the Catholic Church, which he saw as a threat to national unity because of Catholic loyalty to the Pope rather than the Protestant Prussian state:
The Kulturkampf failed. It united Catholics behind the Centre Party (Zentrum), which grew stronger. By 1878, Bismarck quietly abandoned the campaign, needing Centre Party support against the socialists.
After two assassination attempts on Kaiser Wilhelm I in 1878 (not actually by socialists), Bismarck used the pretext to ban socialist organisations, meetings, and publications. However, SPD candidates could still stand for the Reichstag.
| Measure | Effect |
|---|---|
| Ban on organisations | SPD driven underground but not destroyed |
| Continued Reichstag participation | SPD vote actually increased from ~500,000 (1878) to ~1.4 million (1890) |
| State socialism | Bismarck introduced welfare legislation to win workers away from the SPD |
These were the world's first comprehensive social insurance programmes. Bismarck's motive was pragmatic rather than humanitarian: he aimed to bind workers to the state and weaken socialist appeal. The strategy partially failed — workers accepted the benefits but continued voting SPD.
Bismarck's overriding foreign policy aim after 1871 was to preserve the new Empire by isolating France and preventing a two-front war:
Bismarck's alliance system was extraordinarily complex but effective. Its purpose was defensive: keeping France isolated and maintaining peace in Europe. The key tension was managing the rivalry between Austria-Hungary and Russia in the Balkans.
Kaiser Wilhelm I died in March 1888, followed by his son Friedrich III (who reigned for only 99 days before dying of throat cancer). The new Kaiser, Wilhelm II, was 29, ambitious, and determined to rule personally.
The clash between Bismarck and Wilhelm II centred on:
Bismarck was forced to resign on 18 March 1890. The famous Punch cartoon 'Dropping the Pilot' captured the moment. The Reinsurance Treaty with Russia was allowed to lapse in 1890 — a decision of enormous long-term significance, pushing Russia towards alliance with France.
Key Debate: Was Bismarck's system inherently unstable? A.J.P. Taylor argued that only Bismarck could have managed his own complex alliance system, making its collapse after his departure inevitable. Wehler sees the problem as structural: the constitution concentrated too much power in the Chancellor, leaving no mechanism for smooth succession.
| Argument for stability | Argument against stability |
|---|---|
| Rapid industrialisation and economic growth | Power concentrated in unaccountable elites |
| Welfare state bound some workers to the regime | SPD continued to grow despite repression |
| Alliance system maintained peace | System depended entirely on Bismarck's skill |
| National identity strengthened through unification | Catholics, socialists, Poles, and others remained alienated |
| Military prestige after 1871 victories | Militarism entrenched; army answerable only to Kaiser |
Wehler describes Bismarck's Germany as a system of 'negative integration' — defining the nation by its enemies (Catholics, socialists, minorities) rather than by positive civic identity. This sowed the seeds of future instability.