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The Cold War did not begin with a single event but emerged from the disintegration of the wartime Grand Alliance between the United States, the Soviet Union, and Britain. The central question for A-Level historians is: who or what was primarily responsible for the breakdown of relations — was it Soviet expansionism, American provocation, or the structural incompatibility of two rival systems?
Key Definition: The Cold War describes the period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union (and their respective allies) from approximately 1945 to 1991, characterised by ideological rivalry, nuclear arms competition, proxy wars, and propaganda — but no direct military confrontation between the two superpowers.
The Grand Alliance of 1941–1945 was always a marriage of convenience. The USSR, USA, and Britain were united only by their common enemy — Nazi Germany. Beneath the surface, deep ideological hostility persisted. Stalin distrusted the Western powers, suspecting they had deliberately delayed the Second Front (D-Day, 6 June 1944) to allow the USSR to bear the brunt of fighting. Churchill and Roosevelt, in turn, feared Soviet communism and Stalin's ambitions in Eastern Europe.
| Factor | Detail | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Ideological incompatibility | Capitalism vs communism; liberal democracy vs one-party state | Fundamental values were irreconcilable |
| Mutual suspicion | Western delay of the Second Front; Soviet Non-Aggression Pact with Hitler (1939) | Deep distrust on both sides |
| Competing war aims | USA wanted free markets and self-determination; USSR wanted security buffers | Different visions for the post-war world |
| Power vacuum | Defeat of Germany and Japan left a vacuum in Europe and Asia | Both sides moved to fill it |
Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met in the Crimea with the war in Europe nearing its end. Key agreements included:
The ambiguity of the Yalta agreements — particularly the phrase "free elections" — became a source of bitter dispute. Stalin interpreted it as permitting communist-dominated governments; the West expected genuine multi-party democracy.
By Potsdam, the political landscape had shifted dramatically. Roosevelt had died on 12 April 1945, replaced by the more confrontational Harry Truman. Churchill was replaced mid-conference by Clement Attlee after Labour's election victory. Truman arrived knowing the atomic bomb had been successfully tested (the Trinity test, 16 July 1945).
| Issue | Outcome |
|---|---|
| Germany | Confirmed division into zones; each power to extract reparations from its own zone |
| Poland | Western border set at the Oder-Neisse line; USSR's fait accompli largely accepted |
| Atomic bomb | Truman informed Stalin obliquely; Stalin already knew through espionage |
| Reparations | Disagreement over amounts; compromise that left both sides dissatisfied |
Exam Tip: Potsdam revealed the growing rift. Unlike Yalta, where compromise was possible, Potsdam showed two sides increasingly unable to agree. The atomic bomb fundamentally altered the power dynamic.
Between 1945 and 1948, the Soviet Union systematically established communist regimes across Eastern Europe. The process followed a recognisable pattern: coalition governments including communists were established, then opponents were gradually eliminated through intimidation, rigged elections, and outright force.
| Country | Year Communist Control Established | Method |
|---|---|---|
| Poland | 1947 | Rigged elections; suppression of the Peasant Party |
| Romania | 1947 | King forced to abdicate; opposition banned |
| Bulgaria | 1946 | Opposition leader Petkov executed |
| Hungary | 1948 | Salami tactics — slicing away opposition parties |
| Czechoslovakia | 1948 | Communist coup in February |
Hugh Seton-Watson described the process as "revolution from above" — imposed by Soviet power rather than arising from genuine popular support.
On 5 March 1946, Winston Churchill delivered his famous speech at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri: "From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the Continent." While Churchill was no longer Prime Minister, the speech crystallised Western fears about Soviet intentions.
Stalin responded furiously, comparing Churchill to Hitler and accusing the West of seeking to encircle the USSR. The speech marked a public acknowledgement that wartime cooperation had ended.
| School | Key Historians | Argument |
|---|---|---|
| Orthodox/Traditional | Herbert Feis, Arthur Schlesinger Jr. | Soviet expansionism was primarily responsible; Stalin was an aggressive dictator pursuing world revolution |
| Revisionist | William Appleman Williams, Gabriel Kolko | American economic imperialism and atomic diplomacy provoked Soviet defensive reactions |
| Post-revisionist | John Lewis Gaddis, Melvyn Leffler | Both sides bore responsibility; structural factors (power vacuum, ideological incompatibility, security dilemmas) made conflict highly likely |
Exam Tip: The strongest answers avoid simplistic blame and engage with the historiographical debate. Post-revisionist synthesis — acknowledging both Soviet and American contributions within a structural framework — is the most sophisticated approach.