The Language Levels Framework

The study of English Language at A-Level is built upon a systematic analytical toolkit known as the language levels framework. Rather than responding to texts impressionistically, linguists use this framework to identify, categorise, and evaluate the specific features of language that create meaning. Understanding the language levels is the foundation for everything else you will study on this course.

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What Are the Language Levels?

The language levels are a set of interconnected analytical categories that allow us to examine how language works at every scale — from the sounds and visual appearance of a text right through to its overall structure and the way it functions in social contexts. There are six core language levels that you need to understand and apply:

Language Level	Focus	Key Question
Phonology	Sound patterns and features	How does the text sound, and what effects do sound choices create?
Graphology	Visual and spatial features	How does the text look on the page or screen, and what effects do layout choices create?
Lexis	Word choices	What words have been chosen, and what effects do these choices create?
Semantics	Meaning	What meanings are conveyed, including connotations, figurative language, and implied meaning?
Grammar	Sentence and word structure	How are words and sentences constructed, and what effects do grammatical choices create?
Pragmatics	Contextual and implied meaning	What is implied or understood beyond the literal meaning of the words?
Discourse	Text-level organisation	How is the whole text structured and organised, and how does it achieve coherence?

Key Definition: Language levels — a set of analytical categories (phonology, graphology, lexis, semantics, grammar, pragmatics, discourse) used by linguists to systematically examine how language creates meaning.

Note that lexis and semantics are often treated together because word choices (lexis) and their meanings (semantics) are closely interrelated. Similarly, grammar operates at both the word level (morphology) and the sentence level (syntax).

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Why Do Linguists Use Frameworks?

Using a systematic framework has several important advantages over simply responding to a text based on personal impressions:

• Precision — The framework provides specific linguistic terminology that allows you to name exactly what a writer or speaker is doing. Instead of saying a text "sounds aggressive," you can identify the imperative mood, short declarative sentences, and plosive consonant clusters that create that impression.
• Completeness — Working through the levels systematically ensures you do not overlook important features. A purely intuitive response might focus on vocabulary while missing significant graphological or grammatical choices.
• Comparability — When comparing two or more texts, the framework provides a shared set of categories, making comparison systematic rather than impressionistic.
• Evidence-based analysis — The framework encourages you to support every observation with specific textual evidence, which is essential for examination success.

Key Definition: Linguistic analysis — the systematic examination of language using established frameworks and terminology to identify features and evaluate their effects on meaning.

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Mode

One of the first things to establish when analysing any text is its mode — the channel through which communication takes place.

Mode	Characteristics	Examples
Written	Planned, edited, permanent, typically no immediate audience present	Novels, newspapers, letters, academic essays
Spoken	Often spontaneous, temporary, audience usually present, paralinguistic features	Conversations, speeches, interviews, phone calls
Multimodal	Combines written, spoken, and/or visual elements	Websites, social media posts, advertisements, textbooks

The linguist Michael Halliday (1989) argued that spoken and written language are not simply different versions of the same thing — they are fundamentally different systems with distinct grammatical and structural properties. Written language tends to be lexically dense (packing more content words per clause), while spoken language tends to be grammatically intricate (using more complex clause combinations).

Some texts blur the boundaries between modes. Text messages and social media posts, for instance, are written but often display features of spoken language — contractions, informal vocabulary, non-standard spelling that represents pronunciation (such as "gonna" or "wanna"). The linguist David Crystal (2001) coined the term Netspeak to describe the hybrid mode of online communication.

Key Definition: Mode — the channel or medium through which a text is communicated (written, spoken, or multimodal). Mode significantly influences the language features a text is likely to display.

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Register

Register refers to the variety of language appropriate to a particular situation. It is shaped by three key variables, identified by Halliday (1978):

Variable	Description	Example
Field	The subject matter or topic of the text	Medical terminology in a doctor's report; sporting vocabulary in a match commentary
Tenor	The relationship between participants — including power dynamics and social distance	Formal language between a judge and defendant; informal language between close friends
Mode	The channel of communication (as discussed above)	A spoken lecture vs. a written textbook on the same topic

These three variables combine to produce the register of any given text. A legal contract, for example, has a specialised field (law), a formal tenor (between parties who may not know each other, with significant consequences), and a written mode — producing a register characterised by technical jargon, passive constructions, and complex sentence structures.

Key Definition: Register — the variety of language determined by the social context in which it is used, shaped by field (topic), tenor (relationship between participants), and mode (channel of communication).

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Genre

Genre refers to the category or type that a text belongs to, based on shared conventions. Genres are defined by their typical content, structure, style, and purpose. Recognising genre is important because readers and listeners bring genre expectations that shape how they interpret a text.

Common written genres include:

• Persuasive writing — editorials, opinion columns, charity appeals, political speeches
• Instructional writing — recipes, manuals, how-to guides
• Narrative writing — novels, short stories, biographical accounts
• Informative writing — news reports, encyclopaedia entries, textbooks
• Transactional writing — letters, emails, memos

Genres are not fixed categories — they evolve over time and can be subverted or blended. A novelist might use the conventions of a recipe or instruction manual for literary effect. An advertisement might mimic a news report to lend credibility to its claims. Part of your analysis should consider how a text conforms to or departs from genre conventions.

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Audience and Purpose

Every text is produced for an audience and with a purpose (or, often, multiple purposes). Identifying these is essential because they shape every language choice a writer or speaker makes.

Audience

Audience can be described in terms of:

• Demographics — age, gender, socioeconomic group, education level, cultural background
• Knowledge level — whether the audience is specialist or general
• Relationship to producer — whether the audience is known personally or anonymous
• Size — individual, small group, or mass audience

Purpose

The linguist Roman Jakobson (1960) identified six functions of communication, which remain a useful framework for thinking about purpose:

Function	Focus	Example
Referential	Conveying information	A news report
Emotive/Expressive	Expressing feelings or attitudes	A personal diary entry
Conative	Influencing the audience	An advertisement
Phatic	Maintaining social contact	Small talk ("Nice weather, isn't it?")
Metalingual	Discussing language itself	A grammar textbook
Poetic	Drawing attention to the form of the message	Poetry, advertising slogans

Most texts serve multiple purposes simultaneously. A charity appeal letter, for instance, is referential (providing information about the cause), emotive (expressing the suffering of those affected), and conative (persuading the reader to donate).

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Putting It All Together: The Analytical Process

When you approach any text for analysis, you should begin by establishing the contextual factors before applying the language levels:

1. Identify the mode — Is this a written, spoken, or multimodal text?
2. Identify the genre — What type of text is this? What conventions does it follow or subvert?
3. Identify the audience — Who is this text produced for?
4. Identify the purpose(s) — What is the text trying to achieve?
5. Consider the context — When and where was the text produced? What social, cultural, or historical factors might be relevant?
6. Apply the language levels systematically — Examine phonology, graphology, lexis and semantics, grammar, pragmatics, and discourse in turn, noting significant features and evaluating their effects.

The key to effective analysis is linking features to effects. It is never enough to simply identify a feature ("the writer uses alliteration"). You must always explain what effect that feature has in context and how it contributes to the text's overall meaning and purpose.

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Exam Tips

• Always begin your analysis by establishing mode, genre, audience, purpose, and context before diving into language features.
• Use the language levels as a checklist to ensure you cover all relevant areas, but do not force yourself to comment on every level if a particular level is not especially significant in a given text.
• The most effective analyses integrate the language levels rather than treating them as entirely separate categories. For example, you might discuss how lexical choices and grammatical structures work together to create a particular tone.
• Use precise linguistic terminology — but always explain the effect a feature has. Terminology without analysis earns very few marks.
• Remember that the language levels are a tool, not a rigid template. The best responses are driven by the most significant features of the text, not by a mechanical march through every level.